Introduction
— Kotchian values consequences (protection of jobs and investment in company) over potential violation of duty (responsibilities of government officials to uphold the law)
— Moral dilemma: Consequences (teleological theory) vs. Duty (deontological theory)
— Utilitarianism focuses more on the consequences of an action
∙ Two Types of Ethical Theories
— Utilitarianism vs. Kantian ethics (duty) vs. Virtue (i.e., Aristotle – not covered in the
reading)
reading)
— Teleological: ends over means (judged by maximum balance of good over bad)
∙∙ Strengths: in accord with most moral reasoning (makes sense), precise and
objective method
∙∙ Weaknesses: ignores promises and duties, does not take into consideration rights,
justice, and obligations (i.e., free speech might do more harm, yet is a basic right)
∙∙ Weaknesses: ignores promises and duties, does not take into consideration rights,
justice, and obligations (i.e., free speech might do more harm, yet is a basic right)
— Deontological: actions are analyzed according to moral rules (duties)
∙∙ Strengths: good when consequences are irrelevant (e.g., contracts, family
obligations), examines motives (e.g., giving to charity for tax reasons or for
compassion)
obligations), examines motives (e.g., giving to charity for tax reasons or for
compassion)
∙∙ Weaknesses: rules seem arbitrary at times and potentially ethnocentric, no clear-
cut priority among rules
cut priority among rules
∙ Classic Utilitarianism
— Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill –> created practical guide in English reform
movement
movement
— Bentham: “hedonistic calculation” means the sum of pleasure minus pain for all individuals affected by an action (> 0 = good, < 0 = evil) – critics argue is pleasure a
sufficient measure of human happiness?
— Mill: injects overall happiness into calculation rather than just pleasure (quality
besides quantity)
besides quantity)
∙ The Forms of Utilitarianism
— Classic (Act) Utilitarianism: AN ACTION IS RIGHT IF AND ONLY IF IT
PRODUCES THE GREATEST BALANCE OF PLEASURE OVER PAIN FOR
EVERYBODY
PRODUCES THE GREATEST BALANCE OF PLEASURE OVER PAIN FOR
EVERYBODY
Key Features: consequentialism (consequences), hedonism (pleasure), maximalism
(greatest net balance between pleasure and pain), universalism (everybody included in the
calculation)
(greatest net balance between pleasure and pain), universalism (everybody included in the
calculation)
— Act Utilitarianism: AN ACTION IS RIGHT IF AND ONLY IF IT PRODUCES THE
GREATEST BALANCE OF PLEASURE OVER PAIN FOR EVERYBODY
GREATEST BALANCE OF PLEASURE OVER PAIN FOR EVERYBODY
vs.
— Rule Utilitarianism: AN ACTION IS RIGHT IF AND ONLY IF IT CONFORMS TO A
SET OF RULES THE GENERAL ACCEPTANCE OF WHICH WOULD PRODUCE
THE GREATEST BALANCE OF PLEASURE OVER PAIN FOR EVERYONE
SET OF RULES THE GENERAL ACCEPTANCE OF WHICH WOULD PRODUCE
THE GREATEST BALANCE OF PLEASURE OVER PAIN FOR EVERYONE
∙ Problems with Calculating Utility— Difficulty in calculating how much, in identifying alternative courses, and
accounting for differing preferences among different people
— Lockheed did not account for the pain of other companies and might have been
wrong under the utilitarian calculation
wrong under the utilitarian calculation
— Cost-Benefit Analysis (used to select means and ends) vs. Cost Effective Analysis
(predetermined ends with least costly means)
(predetermined ends with least costly means)
— Problems with CBA: difficult to put monetary value on non-market items, often
understates value (ignores opportunity costs)
understates value (ignores opportunity costs)
— One advantage of utilitarianism is its transparency since any ethics theory is value-
laden
laden
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